Bilder og kilder

Bilde 1

Electrical counting at the Census Office, illustrated in Scientific American on 30 August 1890. The operator is not identified.

Bilde 2

Herman Hollerith in the portrait accompanying Martin’s 1891 report.

Extracted historical illustration from the scanned page; surrounding article text omitted. No retouching.

Bilde 3

The labelled board for the census keyboard punch, published in 1891. Its positions supplied the meaning of the holes in an otherwise unlabelled card.

Extracted historical illustration from the scanned page; surrounding article text omitted. No retouching.

Bilde 4

Martin’s facsimile of a completed card for a Chicago head of household. The clipped corner helped orient it; the holes carried the coded particulars.

Extracted historical illustration from the scanned page; surrounding article text omitted. No retouching.

Bilde 5

The open circuit-closing press. Spring-loaded pins descended towards mercury contacts beneath the card.

Extracted historical illustration from the scanned page; surrounding article text omitted. No retouching.

Bilde 6

The clerks’ performance tables supplied to Martin by census official H. Sutherland. The upper table gives best weekly averages; the lower gives single-day records.

Extracted historical illustration from the scanned page; surrounding article text omitted. No retouching.

Bilde 1

A specimen labelled “Perkin’s Purple” in Frederick Crace Calvert’s Lectures on Coal Tar Colours, published in the 1860s.

Detail cropped from original page; colour unaltered.

Bilde 2

William Henry Perkin in 1906, fifty years after the discovery of mauve.

Full source image scaled for delivery.

Bilde 3

“Dale & Caro’s Purple”, another specimen in Calvert’s manual. A competing manufacturing process was patented in 1860.

Detail cropped from original page; colour unaltered.

Bilde 1

Searching for a fault aboard Great Eastern, 31 July 1865, in Robert Charles Dudley's watercolour. Cable recovered from the sea could be examined and cut open on deck.

Bilde 2

The main Atlantic cable type of 1865–66, illustrated in Charles Bright's 1903 history. Seven central copper wires sit inside the insulation; ten separately wrapped armouring wires surround it.

Bilde 3

Reels of gutta-percha-covered conducting wire at the Greenwich works, 1865–66. This was the insulated core, awaiting its external protection.

Bilde 4

Coiling cable at Greenwich in 1865. Large tanks allowed the finished line to be stored under water and tested before shipment.

Bilde 5

Splicing after the first fault, 25 July 1865. Dudley placed the working cablemen beside the machinery and the watching group.

Bilde 1

The Gould violin, made by Stradivari in 1693. Its Baroque fittings were reconstructed in 1975.

Resized for publication; original preserved.

Bilde 2

A viola form made for the Medici set of 1690, reproduced in the Hill brothers’ book.

Historical figure cropped from page and resized; original preserved.

Bilde 3

The Hill brothers’ plan of Stradivari’s house on the Piazza San Domenico places the shop at the street entrance.

Historical figure cropped from page and resized; original preserved.

Bilde 4

A workshop drawing for placing a cello’s sound-holes, reproduced in 1909. Its heading refers to the B form.

Historical figure cropped from page and resized; original preserved.

Bilde 5

Supports used by the Pavia researchers to scan a violin from different directions.

Resized for publication; original preserved.

Bilde 1

The Monolith block during transport, 1926.

Bilde 2

The Monolith and its surrounding granite groups in the completed park.

Resized by Wikimedia thumbnail service; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 3

Gustav Vigeland in 1929, the year carving began on the Monolith.

Bilde 4

Part of the full-size plaster model used to transfer Vigeland’s composition into granite.

Bilde 5

Raising the Monolith block, 1928.

Bilde 6

The Monolith house in 1929. It sheltered both the granite block and the plaster model.

Bilde 7

Carving proceeded from the top down. The lower section still retains the flat faces of the transport block.

Bilde 8

The tool bench in Vigeland’s separate stone-carving workshop at Frogner, with Vilhelm Broe, 1940s.

Bilde 9

From left: Karl Kjær, Nils Jönsson and Ivar Broe outside the Monolith house.

Bilde 10

The completed Monolith in Vigeland Park, c. 1945–1950, with granite groups arranged around the steps.

Bilde 11

Looking from the Monolith steps across the fountain and bridge, August 2022.

Resized by Wikimedia thumbnail service; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 12

Summer flowers in Frogner Park, August 2022.

Resized by Wikimedia thumbnail service; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 1

The Matterhorn from the Riffelberg, in Whymper's 1871 book. Its eastern face was one of the surfaces he examined for a route.

Page margins and printed caption cropped.

Bilde 2

Edward Whymper, photographed by Maull & Fox.

Bilde 3

The Theodule Pass view above and the north-eastern view below, published in 1871. The red intervals represent about sixty vertical feet on average, with the qualification about foreshortening retained in the original legend.

Outer blank page margins cropped.

Bilde 4

Michel-Auguste Croz, labelled 1865 in the portrait published in Scrambles.

Portrait cropped from page; face, both hands and axe retained.

Bilde 5

Peter Taugwalder, the elder of the two guides of that name.

Individual portrait extracted from four-image printed plate; PNG conversion.

Bilde 6

The Actual Summit of the Matterhorn in 1865: Whymper's fragment of the highest rock, whose shape he compared to the mountain. Published in 1871.

Illustration cropped from page; surrounding text omitted.

Bilde 7

The broken rope in the Matterhorn Museum, photographed in 2017. The museum identifies it with the link between Douglas and the elder Taugwalder.

Bilde 1

Jacquard's portrait in silk, after Claude Bonnefond. This copy names Michel-Marie Carquillat as the weaver in the line at the foot of the textile.

Bilde 2

The upper part of a handloom with a Jacquard attachment at the Colegio del Arte Mayor de la Seda in Valencia, photographed in 2016. The card belt passes through the mechanism above the hanging cords.

Bilde 3

Needles, springs and hooks in E. A. Posselt's 1888 explanation of a Jacquard machine. A needle pushed backwards moves its hook out of the lifting frame's path.

Bilde 4

Laced cards and harness cords on a Jacquard loom at the National Museum of Scotland, photographed in 2019. Each card controls a selection of threads; the belt preserves the sequence.

Bilde 5

Carquillat presents the Jacquard portrait during the duc d'Aumale's 1841 visit, in a woven picture dated 1844. Claude Bonnefond designed the scene; A. Manin prepared the weaving design.

Cropped to the historical textile, excluding modern registration marks.

Bilde 1

A modern safety pin in its open and closed positions. The protective cap is a separate piece of metal.

Original arrangement retained; JPEG prepared for publication.

Bilde 2

Hunt’s 1849 drawing offers several spring shapes and ornamental versions around the same fastening principle.

Surrounding blank margins cropped.

Bilde 3

Walter Hunt, from a daguerreotype reproduced by the Smithsonian.

White margins added around the complete portrait.

Bilde 4

A Greek, Boeotian bronze fibula, late eighth–seventh century BCE. Its decorated catch plate carries an incised bird.

Resized to 2645×2800; full original retained.

Bilde 1

A later souscription watch, sold to Mr Demidoff in 1821. One hand indicates the hour and its progress towards the next; the small marks divide each hour into five-minute intervals.

Cropped front photograph from the1921plate; surrounding page text omitted. No retouching.

Bilde 2

Abraham-Louis Breguet, around 1800, in an anonymous portrait.

Bilde 3

The house on the Quai de l’Horloge where Breguet established his Paris workshop in 1775.

Bilde 4

The prospectus’s terms, reprinted in 1921: 600 livres for the watch, with one quarter paid in advance. Delivery would follow the order of subscriptions within the time stated on the receipt.

Trimmed outer page margins; full reprinted page text retained. No retouching.

Bilde 5

The back of the Demidoff watch. It could be wound at the centre from either side; separate bridges leave the wheels accessible.

Cropped back photograph from the1921plate; surrounding page text omitted. No retouching.

Bilde 1

The organ of touch, made for Cagliari in 1803–05: intact and dissected hands beside enlarged fingertip preparations.

Resized by Wikimedia; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 2

Clemente Susini, commemorated on a medallion at La Specola.

Resized by Wikimedia; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 3

Felice Fontana, the museum director who secured patronage and organised the Florentine wax workshop.

Resized by Wikimedia; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 4

La Specola’s anatomical galleries in Florence, photographed in 2025. Models, drawings and written keys form a single teaching collection.

Resized by Wikimedia; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 5

A female anatomical wax by Susini in Pavia, with the chest and abdomen opened to display the internal structures.

Resized by Wikimedia; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 6

A male anatomical figure by Susini in Pavia. The raised arm opens a view along the exposed structures of the torso.

Resized by Wikimedia; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 7

Paolo Mascagni, whose investigations of the lymphatic vessels informed work in the Florentine workshop. Engraving by Luigi Rados after R. Focosi.

Resized by Wikimedia; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 8

A full-length anatomical wax at the Josephinum in Vienna, destination of the great imperial commission of the 1780s.

Resized by Wikimedia; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 9

Two views beneath the foot in the Cagliari collection: the sheet of tissue supporting the sole and a deeper view of the muscles.

Resized by Wikimedia; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 10

The organ of taste in Cagliari. Beside the human head and tongue is a model based on a boiled calf’s tongue, with part of its covering removed to reveal the layers.

Resized by Wikimedia; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 11

Sections through the nasal cavities in Cagliari’s models of the organ of smell.

Resized by Wikimedia; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 12

The brain, cranial nerves and neck in the Cagliari collection, made in 1803–05.

Resized by Wikimedia; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 13

The Cagliari collection in its museum setting, photographed in 2019. Its twenty-three cases were made for a specific Sardinian commission.

Resized by Wikimedia; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 1

A preserving bottle from Appert’s time, displayed in Châlons-en-Champagne.

Complete photograph retained.

Bilde 2

Nicolas Appert, in a woodcut published in Les Artisans illustres in 1841.

Complete image retained.

Bilde 3

The foldout in Appert’s 1813 edition brings corking tools and a heating installation onto one sheet.

Resized; full original preserved.

Bilde 4

The first edition of Appert’s preserving book, published in Paris in 1810.

Complete page retained; transparency flattened to white for JPEG.

Bilde 1

A plant collected on Mauritius in 1769, preserved in Paris. Its old label carries the proposed name Baretia bonafidia; the specimen is now identified as Turraea rutilans.

Full source image scaled for delivery.

Bilde 2

Baret depicted as a plant-carrying sailor in an engraving signed Dall’Acqua.

Full source image scaled for delivery.

Bilde 3

The route of Bougainville’s two ships in the English edition of his voyage, published in 1772. Baret remained on Mauritius and completed her own journey later.

Full source image scaled for delivery.

Bilde 4

The old Baretia name remains on the specimen’s label, below a later identification by Jean Bosser dated 1997.

Detail cropped from source photograph; colour unaltered.

Bilde 5

Solanum baretiae in the paper that named it in 2012: leafy growth, two flower forms, ripe orange fruit and unripe green fruit. This Andean plant commemorates Baret.

Full source image scaled for delivery.

Bilde 1

The cabinet delivered to Charles Alexander of Lorraine in 1776, now at the MAK in Vienna.

Bilde 2

Johannes Juncker’s 1772 portrait shows Abraham Roentgen holding designs for furniture fittings.

Bilde 3

David Roentgen, portrayed around 1785–90.

Bilde 4

Marquetry figures inhabit the doors of the Vienna cabinet; the pictures are also parts of an opening structure.

Bilde 5

The Vienna cabinet’s clock sits below Apollo. Peter Kinzing supplied its clock and musical machinery.

Bilde 6

A separate Roentgen desk of about 1776–79, with its curved rolltop closed.

Bilde 7

The same desk opened for writing, with its leather-lined slide extended and internal compartments exposed.

Bilde 8

A side drawer swings away to expose another set of small drawers behind it.

Bilde 9

Johann Friedrich Anthing’s cut-paper scene of a furniture negotiation in St. Petersburg, about 1784–86. Roentgen stands second from the right.

Bilde 10

A yellowheart-veneered desk of about 1785–86, probably supplied to Catherine II.

Bilde 11

The same desk opened, with its writing slide extended and working compartments visible.

Bilde 1

An Auzoux anatomical man made in 1843, now in the Musée d’Histoire de la Médecine in Paris.

Resized by Wikimedia; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 2

Louis Auzoux beside an anatomical model, in a lithograph by J. B. A. Lafosse.

Resized by Wikimedia; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 3

The Auzoux works at Saint-Aubin-d’Écrosville in Normandy, on a historical postcard.

Resized by Wikimedia; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 4

Workers outside the anatomical-model workshops at Saint-Aubin-d’Écrosville.

Resized by Wikimedia; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 5

An enlarged eye model made by Auzoux in 1870.

Resized by Wikimedia; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 6

The same eye opened into its separate parts. Enlargement made the structures easier to handle and examine.

Resized by Wikimedia; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 7

An Auzoux brain model with visible joints and printed labels, at the Musée Fragonard.

Resized by Wikimedia; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 8

The 1841 Albany catalogue priced the large man at 3,200 francs and promised that its 129 parts could be put back in less than ten minutes.

Full page rendered from the public-domain 1841 catalogue PDF.

Bilde 9

The cover of Auzoux’s 1869 catalogue, presenting the anatomical man as a product to be ordered and used.

Resized by Wikimedia; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 10

An Auzoux horse model at the National Veterinary School in Toulouse.

Resized by Wikimedia; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 11

James Law with an Auzoux horse model at Cornell, surrounded by his students.

Resized by Wikimedia; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 12

An enlarged cockchafer from the Auzoux range, preserved at the Musée Fragonard in Maisons-Alfort.

Resized by Wikimedia; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 13

Silkworm preparations from the Auzoux range, enlarged and opened to expose their internal structures.

Resized by Wikimedia; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 14

An enlarged currant model made by the Auzoux firm in 1877, opened through the fruit.

Resized by Wikimedia; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 1

John Hodgson, the clergyman who carried lamps into Hebburn Colliery and reported their use to Davy. Frontispiece to James Raine's 1857 memoir.

Bilde 2

Humphry Davy. His experiments on firedamp developed through several lamp designs during the autumn and winter of 1815–16.

Bilde 3

Davy's lamp and refinements, published in 1817. At left, the assembled lamp has strong outer supports around its fine gauze; separate cylinders and other experimental fittings occupy the rest of the plate.

Bilde 4

Stephenson's third design in his 1817 publication. The glass chimney is shown separately from its protective cover; below, a section explains the air passages around the reservoir.

Bilde 5

Hodgson's letter of 20 May 1816, reproduced in Raine's memoir. A loose burner had delayed the specimen he wanted to send Davy; the replacement answered the miners' practical objections.

Bilde 1

An early impression of Hokusai’s Under the Wave off Kanagawa, made around 1830–32.

Full source image scaled for delivery.

Bilde 2

Hokusai, portrayed by Keisai Eisen.

Full source image scaled for delivery.

Bilde 3

The title frame in the Met’s early impression. Its double border is continuous.

Detail cropped from the original image; no lines reconstructed.

Bilde 4

The corresponding frame in the later Chicago impression. Gaps in the left border record damage to the carved printing surface.

Detail cropped from the original image; no lines reconstructed.

Bilde 5

A later impression, with changed light-blue shapes and missing yellow in parts of the boats. The pink clouds may also have been strengthened after printing.

Full source image scaled for delivery.

Bilde 1

Early Brendel models of meadow saffron, hemlock and prickly poppy, from the first series introduced in 1866.

Complete figure extracted from PDF; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 2

Ferdinand Julius Cohn, whose teaching at Breslau prompted Lohmeyer’s enlarged plant models.

Original file; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 3

Brendel’s model of beech, with details of nasturtium, sundew, cacao and henbane from the Madrid collection.

Complete figure extracted from PDF; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 4

Brendel’s model of a pea pod, closed, in the Botanical Museum at Greifswald.

Original file; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 5

The pea pod opened for inspection.

Original file; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 6

Meadow saffron in Otto Wilhelm Thomé’s Flora von Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz, 1885.

Original file; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 7

Meadow saffron flowering without its spring foliage.

Original file; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 8

A closed model of a Pteris serrulata sporangium at Greifswald.

Original file; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 9

The same spore case opened. Brendel used gelatin for several translucent botanical structures.

Original file; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 10

Brendel’s 1900–1901 price list, in a copy annotated by botanist Charles Eugène Bertrand.

Full title page rendered from digitised historical catalogue.

Bilde 11

The Brendel collection in cabinets at Complutense University of Madrid.

Complete figure extracted from PDF; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 12

Brendel’s enlarged rye spikelet at Greifswald. Rye was one of the few flowering-plant models Suhr recommended.

Original file; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 13

Virtual restoration trials in Madrid tested the placement of detached parts, cleaning and retouching before treatment of the originals.

Complete figure extracted from PDF; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 14

Conservation of the Madrid models: consolidating lifting paint and retouching losses.

Complete figure extracted from PDF; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 1

Ctenopoma kingsleyae, the large fish marked A, in Albert Günther’s 1896 report. B and C illustrate two other Ctenopoma species.

Rotated ninety degrees clockwise from original plate; scaled for delivery; colour unaltered.

Bilde 2

Mary Kingsley, in a portrait published in the 1901 edition of West African Studies.

Full source image scaled for delivery.

Bilde 3

The mission station at Talagouga, pictured in Travels in West Africa. Kingsley stayed with the Forgets while buying and preparing fish.

Full source image scaled for delivery.

Bilde 4

Adooma men of the upper Ogooué, in an illustration supplied to Kingsley’s book by the Mission Évangélique of Paris.

Full source image scaled for delivery.

Bilde 5

Boko Boko rapids on the Ogooué, pictured in Kingsley’s book. The canoe journey continued upstream towards Kondo-Kondo and the Alemba rapid.

Full source image scaled for delivery.

Bilde 1

A later Waterman 0514 PSF with its cap removed. This decorated lever-filling model belongs to a later stage of the pen’s development; the first Watermans were filled with a separate dropper.

Bilde 2

Lewis Edson Waterman, in a portrait published in 1899.

Existing Commons version has uploader crop, contrast enhancement and small background repair; no additional body edits.

Bilde 3

Waterman’s 1884 design put a grooved feed bar beneath the nib. The small cross-section shows the narrow passages through which ink and replacement air had to travel.

Trimmed outer page margins; full drawing, date and signatures retained.

Bilde 4

Instructions sent out in 1885 explain carrying, filling, cleaning and returning a pen for adjustment. The cross-section identifies the nib, feed, section and ink-holding barrel.

Trimmed blank margins around the complete instruction panel.

Bilde 5

Parker’s 1898 drawings show the curved inner end of the feed and several views of its channels. His proposed arrangement supplied ink during writing and returned surplus towards the reservoir when the pen was inverted.

Trimmed outer margins only; full sheet of figures retained. Earlier detail candidates clipped adjacent figures and were rejected.

Bilde 6

Inspection at Waterman’s Newark works, in a company brochure from around 1925. The central photograph shows a worker smoothing a point and making the final inspection.

Extracted original photographic montage and its printed caption from page18/PDF19; surrounding blank margins and page furniture omitted. No retouching.

Bilde 1

Pyramidal Building and Fragments of Sculpture, at Copan, Plate II of Catherwood's 1844 Views. The foreground gathers pieces found elsewhere at the site.

Book margins cropped; raw scan preserved.

Bilde 2

John Lloyd Stephens, whose travel narrative preserves the account of the work at Copán. This portrait appeared in the 1854 edition revised by Catherwood.

Bilde 3

The court of stelae at Copán in February 1988, with Structure 4 across the open ground.

Bilde 4

Catherwood's Maya Stela at Copan, Honduras, signed 1843: watercolour, ink, wash and graphite, with scratched highlights.

Bilde 5

Broken Idol, at Copan, Plate IV, 1844. Warren's lithograph presents the broken sculpture within another carefully composed forest scene.

Book margins cropped; raw scan preserved.

Bilde 6

The earlier engraving of Stela F, published in Stephens's travel book in 1841. Its copied signs later supplied evidence lost from the monument.

Format converted from downloaded WebP to JPEG.

Bilde 1

A snow crystal photographed by Bentley between the 1890s and 1920s. The dark field isolates the branches and their fine internal markings.

Bilde 2

Bentley beside his camera, about 1910. The long bellows enlarged the microscope's image on the photographic plate.

Cropped source at pixel box (120,134,3234,2420) to remove modern colour target and outer mount. Original 4000×2577 file retained. No retouching.

Bilde 3

Bentley's 1922 illustrations follow the work from collecting board to camera. The middle view shows the cord and wheels used for focusing.

Original p. 311 illustration cropped at pixel box (44,53,539,798); full scan retained.

Bilde 4

A different form in Bentley's collection: a column-like crystal with plates at its ends. His subjects extended well beyond six-branched stars.

Bilde 5

A 1922 illustration pairs Bentley's knife work with an original negative, a partly blocked example and the completed result. He explained that the work was done indoors; this demonstration was photographed outside for light.

Original magazine illustration cropped from p. 310 image at pixel box (29,214,273,547); full scan retained.

Bilde 6

A plate accompanying Bentley's study of the winter of 1901–02 includes compact and branched crystals as well as irregular and clustered forms.

Bilde 7

A compact plate from Bentley's photographs of the 1890s–1920s. Similar outer outlines could contain different internal markings.

Bilde 1

The plesiosaur Anning found in 1823, photographed at the Natural History Museum in 2017. Its long neck ends in a small skull at the right.

Source image retained in full; JPEG delivery copy.

Bilde 2

Anning’s drawing and the beginning of her letter to Sir Henry Bunbury, December 1823. The scale reads one inch to each foot.

Source image retained in full; JPEG delivery copy.

Bilde 3

A reconstructed skeleton and comparative anatomical details published with Conybeare’s 1824 account. The regular arrangement interprets the animal rather than recording every bone’s position in the rock.

Source image retained in full; JPEG delivery copy.

Bilde 1

Garthwaite’s 1747 design woven by Peter Lekeux and made into a sleeved waistcoat. Flowers and metal threads frame the opening and the pockets.

Original retained; no changes to the image.

Bilde 2

The house at 2 Princelet Street, London, where Garthwaite lived and worked. Photographed in 2021.

Original retained; no changes to the image.

Bilde 3

The design sold to Mr Lekeux on 23 October 1747. The colour key below the flowers specifies three different metal threads.

Original retained; no changes to the image.

Bilde 4

A different Garthwaite design, woven by Thomas Brant in 1748. Brant changed some colours and added texture to the background.

Original retained; no changes to the image.

Bilde 5

Anne Shippen Willing in 1746, painted by Robert Feke. Her dress uses a different Garthwaite design, sold to Simon Julins in 1743.

Commons original retained; no further changes.

Bilde 1

The Writer, made in La Chaux-de-Fonds between 1768 and 1774.

Resized by Wikimedia; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 2

Pierre Jaquet-Droz (1721–1790).

Original file; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 3

Henri-Louis Jaquet-Droz (1752–1791).

Original file; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 4

A later clock by Pierre Jaquet-Droz, at the Musée international d’horlogerie in La Chaux-de-Fonds.

Original file; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 5

Inside the Writer: the cam assembly and selection mechanism fit into the figure’s body.

Resized by Wikimedia; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 6

The Writer’s quill and a prepared message at Neuchâtel.

Original file; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 7

The Draughtsman, whose pencil moves across stationary paper.

Resized by Wikimedia; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 8

The Musician at her organ.

Resized by Wikimedia; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 9

Two of the Draughtsman’s subjects: Louis XV and the dog labelled “Mon Toutou”.

Original file; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 10

The Draughtsman’s mechanism, exposed behind his coat.

Resized by Wikimedia; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 11

The Musician’s fingers operate real organ keys.

Resized by Wikimedia; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 12

An engraved prospectus dated 1776, showing the Grotto and the three androids.

Resized by Wikimedia; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 13

The three automata in their museum setting at Neuchâtel.

Resized by Wikimedia; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 1

The Abinger excavation in section: soil above the surviving wall and floor. The trench is drawn narrower than its true proportions. From Darwin’s book, 1904 edition.

Full source image scaled for delivery.

Bilde 2

A different marker layer, near Maer Hall: fragments spread on reclaimed ground had become covered by fine earth after fifteen years. From Darwin’s book, 1904 edition.

Detail cropped from original page; colour unaltered.

Bilde 3

Charles Darwin, photographed by Julia Margaret Cameron around 1868; this carbon print was made in 1875.

Full source image scaled for delivery.

Bilde 4

A tower-like casting from near Nice, copied from a photograph for Darwin’s book. It illustrates the deposited material, rather than a specimen from the Leith Hill plots.

Detail cropped from original page; colour unaltered.

Bilde 1

The tree whose leaves defeated Merian’s rearing attempts: they hardened after cutting, leaving her caterpillars unable to eat them.

Bilde 2

Maria Sibylla Merian with books, specimens and the tools of her trade, in Jacob Houbraken’s engraving after Georg Gsell.

Bilde 3

An enslaved woman brought Merian one of the creatures on this sheet and told her what it would become. Merian recorded that her own attempt to observe the change failed.

Bilde 4

The peacock flower. Merian’s accompanying text records what Indigenous and enslaved women told her about reproduction under slavery.

Bilde 5

On the guava plate, cocoons, caterpillars and adult insects compress observations made over several months.

Bilde 6

A pomegranate branch with the blue butterfly whose wing scales Merian examined through a magnifying glass.

Bilde 7

The ripe pineapple shares its sheet with insects assembled from separate observations. Merian found the caterpillar in grass.

Bilde 8

The immense white witch moth shares a plate with a caterpillar that cannot be its larva.

Bilde 9

Frogs at successive stages, from eggs and tadpoles to animals able to leave the water, share a sheet with water insects and an aquatic flower.

Bilde 10

Merian added a lizard and its eggs beside the banana. She carried the eggs aboard ship; the hatchlings did not survive.

Bilde 1

H4 with its movement removed from the silver case. The separate views reveal how much machinery sat behind the familiar watch face.

Bilde 2

H3, the large marine timekeeper Harrison worked on from 1740. Its two circular balances belonged to a different approach from H4's fast watch balance.

Bilde 3

John Harrison, painted by Thomas King around 1767. The watch in his hand is the Jefferys watch; H3 stands behind his shoulder.

Bilde 4

H4's movement. Its pierced and engraved metalwork covers a mechanism with separate arrangements for keeping power steady, sustaining the balance and correcting temperature changes.

Bilde 1

Jesse Lyman Hurlbut, the Methodist educator who wrote the tour’s guidebook.

Faithful historical portrait reproduction retained.

Bilde 2

Jaffa from offshore, on an Underwood & Underwood stereograph issued in 1901.

Complete card and left/right order retained; resized for web.

Bilde 3

Wheatstone’s mirror arrangement, illustrated in Brewster’s 1856 book. The two pictures stand at the sides of the instrument.

Complete original historical engraving retained.

Bilde 4

Brewster’s lenticular form, illustrated in the same book. The pictures sit together in front of the lenses, inside the box.

Complete original historical engraving retained.

Bilde 5

A handheld stereoscope from 1900–1910, seen from the card side. The crosspiece slides along the shaft to focus the view.

Complete museum photograph retained.

Bilde 6

Part of the tour’s general map. The red viewpoint numbered 1 lies offshore at Jaffa; the route continues inland towards Jerusalem.

Section cropped from the southern scan of Map 7; original PDF and full scan part retained.

Bilde 7

A Jaffa courtyard traditionally identified with Simon the Tanner, published in 1903.

Complete card and left/right order retained; resized for web.

Bilde 8

The same card’s reverse assigns it another position in a different series. The title appears in English, French, German, Spanish, Swedish and Russian.

Empty card margins trimmed; all printed title and six-language text retained. Full original reverse preserved.

Bilde 1

The tiger’s flank opens to reveal a small organ keyboard and pipes.

Bilde 2

The tiger grips the European figure at the neck; his movable arm can cover and uncover his mouth.

Bilde 3

Tipu Sultan in a Deccani portrait, displayed at the Salar Jung Museum in Hyderabad.

Bilde 4

A front view of Tipu Sultan’s throne, recorded in 1799, with a tiger supporting the seat.

Bilde 5

A soldier of Tipu Sultan’s army with a rocket used as a flagstaff, painted by Robert Home in 1793–94.

Bilde 6

The Seringapatam medal: on the right, a lion forces a tiger to the ground. Illustration published in 1915.

Bilde 7

East India House in Leadenhall Street, London, in a print after Thomas Malton.

Bilde 8

The museum at East India House, illustrated in Charles Knight’s London. The tiger stands at the left.

Bilde 9

Tipu’s Tiger illustrated in The Penny Magazine, 15 August 1835.

Bilde 10

Tipu’s Tiger on display at the Victoria and Albert Museum in 2011.

Bilde 11

The Death of Munrow, a Staffordshire pottery group made about 1820–30.

Bilde 1

Pondicherry in 1769, from Le Gentil’s voyage account. The observatory stands on the surviving palace masonry beside the flagstaff.

Rendered from original PDF; outer scanner margins cropped, plate title and key retained.

Bilde 2

Two observers on Earth see Venus take slightly different tracks across the Sun. Comparing the timings helps turn the known proportions of the planetary orbits into distances. Modern explanatory diagram; distances and sizes are schematic.

Commons raster rendition converted from transparent WebP to JPEG with white background; full diagram retained.

Bilde 3

Le Gentil trying to observe at sea, imagined for La Nature in 1874. The event belonged to 1761; the later magazine caption incorrectly dated it 1769.

Original image retained.

Bilde 4

Don Estevan Roxas y Melo’s Manila observation, printed in French and Spanish in Le Gentil’s book. It records Venus’s internal contact at 9:25:45 and its complete departure at 9:43:26.

Rendered and cropped from printed page510 to the two-column observation.

Bilde 1

A later No. 14 chair in the Germanisches Nationalmuseum, Nuremberg.

Full original photograph scaled for delivery.

Bilde 2

Michael Thonet, in a portrait published in 1898.

Portrait and printed name cropped from the 1898 page; original page retained.

Bilde 3

Thonet's Boppard chair, about 1836–40.

Full original museum photograph scaled for delivery.

Bilde 4

The Koritschan works, in an illustration published in 1898.

Factory illustration cropped from the 1898 page; whole scene retained.

Bilde 5

The bending workshop at Bistritz, now Bystřice pod Hostýnem, in an illustration published in 1898.

Whole workshop illustration cropped from the 1898 page; original page retained.

Bilde 6

Assembly at the Bistritz works, in an illustration published in 1898.

Closer assembly view cropped from the 1898 page to remove neighbouring printed text; main worker, both hands and held chair frame retained. Whole page preserved.

Bilde 1

The cylinder phonograph built by John Kruesi in December 1877, preserved at Thomas Edison National Historical Park.

Full source photograph, including original museum label and scale; no reconstruction.

Bilde 2

Edison and his assistants at Menlo Park, including Charles Batchelor.

Photographic rectangle cropped from PDF319 and rotated90degrees; all people retained.

Bilde 3

The recording surface and adjustments of a different tinfoil phonograph, dated 1878, in the National Museum of American History.

Full original photograph scaled for delivery.

Bilde 4

The Menlo Park laboratory with Edison and his assistants, about 1880.

Photographic rectangle cropped from PDF313 and rotated90degrees; full laboratory photograph retained.

Bilde 1

Potter’s red waxcap, Hygrocybe coccinea, 1897. Whole mushrooms, a section and small spore studies share the sheet.

Full source image; colour unaltered.

Bilde 2

Beatrix Potter with Spot, photographed by her father Rupert when she was fifteen.

Full source image; colour unaltered.

Bilde 3

Flammulina velutipes, the species Potter concentrated on for her paper, photographed in Hertfordshire in 2013.

Full source image scaled for delivery; colour unaltered.

Bilde 1

Cole's Symphonion, ordered around 1889. The lower compartment held spare music discs.

Bilde 2

The main arcade, from the album compiled by Henry Williams in 1923.

Album page margins cropped; complete source scan preserved.

Bilde 3

E.W. Cole in the album photograph captioned Leaving Home for Business.

Album page margins cropped; complete source scan preserved.

Bilde 4

Hansel and Gretel: one of eight discs bought by the museum in 1982 to supplement those acquired with the machine.

Bilde 5

The underside of the same disc. Punched tongues engage the small wheels that pluck the instrument's comb.

Bilde 6

The arcade's music department, from Henry Williams's album.

Album page margins cropped; complete source scan preserved.

Bilde 1

Keeper George Jaehne cleaning the Point Reyes lens in 1927. The figure beside the glass gives the first-order apparatus its human scale.

Bilde 2

Point Reyes in 1870, photographed by Eadweard Muybridge. The short tower stood on a shelf below the headland, with little ground between its base and the sea.

Bilde 3

Different zones of the Point Reyes optic collect light leaving the source at different angles. The central bull's-eye and surrounding rings form part of one of its twenty-four panels.

Bilde 4

The clockwork below the lens. A falling weight supplied power; the gearing and governor controlled the rotation that produced the lighthouse's identifying flashes.

Bilde 5

Cleaning the preserved lens at Point Reyes. The separate prisms still require close, careful access.

Bilde 1

An Odhner calculator made in St. Petersburg before 1900. The curved cover carries the number settings; the sliding carriage below holds the result and the count of turns.

Bilde 2

Odhner’s 1878 patent drawing. The adjustable teeth project from the large wheel’s rim; the smaller gear drives a numbered wheel. This is the early design, before the production model introduced in 1890.

Detail from sheet2, rotated90degrees clockwise for legibility; no retouching.

Bilde 3

The original worked examples. Multiplying by 24 takes four turns at units and two at tens; the next example uses a multiplier with a zero in the hundreds place.

Trimmed outer scan margins; whole two-page example spread retained.

Bilde 4

Odhner’s 1890 booklet offered instructions as well as a machine for sale. Its title page gives his St. Petersburg address and shows the complete instrument.

Trimmed blank facing sheet, modern copy label and outer margins; no retouching.

Bilde 1

Deane working on Royal George in August 1832, in a lithograph published the following May. The cutaway connects the diver, air pump, signal line and weighted ladder. This depicts the earlier salvage work, before Pasley's clearance operation.

Cropped to remove a modern colour scale.

Bilde 2

The early Deane smoke/diving helmet, made by Augustus Siebe in the late 1820s. Its guarded windows and broad shoulder plate survive; the air supply came from a pump above.

Orientation adjusted.

Bilde 3

Augustus Siebe beside diving equipment in Ernest August Becker's portrait of 1859. The painting places the maker with a later closed helmet and dress.

Bilde 4

Deane shackling a chain to a stone mooring at the Commercial Dock, September 1833. An illustration from his Submarine Researches, published in 1836, connects the hands at the pump with the work below.

Historical illustration extracted from the later reproduction.

Bilde 1

A Wardian case displayed at Chelsea Physic Garden in London. The deep wooden base held the roots and soil; glass admitted light while sheltering the plants.

Cover cropped; full photograph retained in the article.

Bilde 2

Nathaniel Bagshaw Ward, in an 1859 lithograph by Richard James Lane after John Prescott Knight.

Bilde 3

A travelling case in Ward's 1852 book. The deep base, carrying handle and glazed superstructure belong to equipment meant to move a planted bed.

Illustration cropped from page 71.

Bilde 4

Joseph Dalton Hooker, portrayed by Thomas Herbert Maguire in 1851. His New Zealand packing account describes the drainage and soil hidden beneath the plants.

Bilde 5

Gleichenia microphylla growing in Tasmania. Ward recorded this fern among the plants that arrived alive from Australia in 1834.

Bilde 6

The Tintern Abbey case, illustrated in Ward's book on closely glazed cases. Gothic ruins furnish a miniature landscape for the plants.

Bilde 7

Red-bark cinchona, historically called Cinchona succirubra, in Köhler's medicinal plant atlas. The bark made living trees and seed valuable cargo.

Bilde 8

Collecting cinchona bark at the Munsong plantation in India. This later photograph records the plantation work at the destination of botanical transfers.

Bilde 9

Bipalium kewense, a land flatworm dispersed through the movement of plants. Its name recalls the Kew hothouse where it was found.

Bilde 10

A surviving travelling case displayed at the Jenisch Haus in Hamburg. The removable glazed cover gave access to the planted bed.

Bilde 1

Great White Heron, published in 1835. The finished print sets the bird against a dark sky and a distant view of Key West.

Bilde 2

Audubon in a reproduction of George P. A. Healy's 1838 portrait. His collecting supplied specimens for the pictures and observations for the accompanying accounts.

Bilde 3

Robert Havell in a photograph taken shortly before his death in 1878, decades after the bird plates.

Bilde 4

The heron's legs and feet, enlarged from the finished print. Audubon asked for the divisions between their scales to remain white in the engraving, allowing for the colouring that followed.

Mechanical detail crop at pixel box(1680,1280,4030,2700), original4096×2816retained; no retouching.

Bilde 5

Marsh Wren, 1830, on its full sheet. The small subject occupies only part of the paper. This impression bears the erroneous number 98; the plate became number 100.

Bilde 6

Lucy Bakewell Audubon. Her paid teaching helped support the family during the years in which her husband pursued his bird project.

Bilde 1

An early Wedgwood copy of the Portland Vase, about 1790.

Full original image scaled for delivery.

Bilde 2

Josiah Wedgwood, painted by Joshua Reynolds.

Full original image scaled for delivery.

Bilde 3

The Roman glass Portland Vase in the British Museum.

Full original image scaled for delivery.

Bilde 4

Jasper trials from 1773–76, before the Portland Vase project. The numbers relate to Wedgwood's experiment book.

Full original image scaled for delivery.

Bilde 5

The ancient cameo disc once attached beneath the Portland Vase. It did not originally belong to the vessel.

Full original image scaled for delivery.

Bilde 1

Two chairs after Chippendale’s ribbon-back design, made around 1755–60. The carved ribbons remain; the ornament beneath the seat has been simplified.

Original museum image retained.

Bilde 2

Chippendale’s preparatory drawing. The chair on the right becomes the left-hand chair in the printed plate.

Original museum image retained.

Bilde 3

The same designs engraved for the first Director. M. Darly’s name appears below the right edge.

Original museum image retained.

Bilde 4

A writing-table drawing supplies alternatives for the front, together with plans and a diagram of the rising top.

Original museum image retained.

Bilde 1

Raffaelli's Doves of Pliny, 1783. The glass picture is mounted on bronze.

Bilde 2

The ancient dove panel found at Hadrian's Villa in 1737, now in the Capitoline Museums.

Bilde 3

The drinking bird and bowl in Raffaelli's 1783 roundel.

Detail cropped from the complete museum photograph; original preserved.

Bilde 4

Thomas Jenkins, painted by Anton von Maron in 1791. Accademia di San Luca.

Bilde 5

Raffaelli's Box with a View of Tivoli, 1804.

Bilde 1

The French Tableau physique: Chimborazo's dome, Cotopaxi's smoking cone and plant names arranged against height. The surrounding columns belong to the argument as much as the landscape does.

Bilde 2

Friedrich Georg Weitsch's later composition places Humboldt standing and Bonpland seated at the lower right, among plants and collecting equipment. This is a constructed expedition portrait, rather than an eyewitness record of a day's work.

Bilde 3

Antisana from the west in September 2018. This volcano supplied much of the expedition's high-altitude botanical material in 1802.

Bilde 4

Detail of the French plate. Plant names, larger regional labels and the drawn surface share the mountain's interior. The paper's folds pass through the information.

Detail cropped from the complete plate.

Bilde 1

A chromatrope in Museums Victoria. Turning the side handle drives two patterned glass discs in opposite directions.

Cover detail cropped to the brass ring and patterned glass; full original photograph retained in the article.

Bilde 2

Auguste Edouart's The Magic Lantern, about 1835, made from cut paper and wash. A musician accompanies the domestic show while children gather around the projection.

Bilde 3

A pulley-driven chromatrope in an 1874 guide. The band transmits movement from the handwheel to the patterned glass.

Rendered printed page60/PDF68 at4x; cropped (140,740,1010,1150) from1112x1844, retaining complete figure39 and its label. No retouching.

Bilde 4

Newton & Co. lanterns, probably from the 1880s, with the fan-shaped shutter used for dissolving views. The two projectors were aimed at the same part of the screen.

Bilde 5

Summer in a Newton & Co. dissolving-view pair, probably from the 1880s. The bridge, tower and buildings provide fixed points for the change of season.

Bilde 6

The matching winter view. A controlled change of illumination could replace the summer landscape with this one.

Bilde 1

“A Lack of Balance”, a photograph published in Willard's A Wheel within a Wheel, 1895. The book describes helpers gradually withdrawing their support.

Bilde 2

An 1885 Rover in London's Science Museum, photographed in 2016. The chain drives the rear wheel; the handlebar turns the front fork directly. Its saddle was remade in 1961.

Bilde 3

An ordinary illustrated in Archibald Sharp's Bicycles & Tricycles, 1896. Direct drive made the front wheel's diameter a measure of the distance travelled per pedal turn.

Cropped from the book page to isolate the bicycle.

Bilde 4

Starley & Sutton advertised the early Rover as “as safe as any Tricycle”. By November they were selling road records as well as safety. The steering arrangements differ between the two drawings.

Bilde 5

A Humber safety illustrated in 1896. The straight tube from saddle to crank axle distinguishes this frame from the curved early Rover.

Cropped from the book page to isolate the bicycle.

Bilde 6

“At Last”, the closing riding photograph in Willard's 1895 book. The bicycle preserved today at her house museum is a later gift, Gladys III, given in September 1896.

Bilde 1

An inclined plane interrupts the downward flow in Marey's 1901 smoke apparatus. This instantaneous photograph preserves the separate curls behind it.

Bilde 2

Étienne-Jules Marey, photographed by Nadar. His investigations ranged from the movements of the body to the behaviour of the fluids around it.

Bilde 3

Marey's apparatus in La Nature, 1901. The chamber stands at the left; the fan draws the current down through it, and the flash enclosure is marked E.

Bilde 4

Timing ripples travel along the threads in this short-exposure illustration. Their spacing, read against the scale, allowed Marey to estimate speed.

Bilde 5

Five seconds of illumination. The steadier threads remain distinct, while changing eddies overlap into a more uniform grey.

Bilde 6

The broad face of a triangular prism meets the incoming current. The illuminated smoke traces the disturbance around and behind it.

Bilde 7

The prism with its point foremost. The threads divide along its sides, and the wake starts below the broad trailing face.

Bilde 8

A later reconstruction working at the Centre Pompidou–Metz in 2014. The curved surface interrupts the descending smoke threads.

EXIF orientation6 normalised in a separate derivative, then JPEG saved at quality95. No crop, contrast change or retouching. Original4320×3240source retained separately.

Bilde 1

A Charles Bruguier singing-bird box, made around 1850. The raised bird and the separate tobacco compartment share a case about ten centimetres wide.

Original photograph retained.

Bilde 2

An earlier example by Frères Rochat, around 1820, with bird, music and a repeating watch. The opened case exposes mechanisms that a finished performance normally conceals.

Original composite photograph retained.

Bilde 3

A Bruguier box with its bird concealed beneath the enamelled lake and mountain scene. Flowers cover the surrounding surface.

Original photograph retained.

Bilde 1

A Henshall-type corkscrew from the early nineteenth century. A serrated button sits above the worm; the handle carries a brush of pig bristles.

Blank background trimmed; JPEG prepared from the original TIFF.

Bilde 2

A simple T corkscrew with a shaped two-finger grip. Without a stop above the worm, the user decides when to finish turning and begin pulling.

Blank background trimmed; JPEG prepared from the original TIFF.

Bilde 3

Matthew Boulton, painted by Carl Frederik von Breda. His Soho manufactory made Henshall’s corkscrews.

Complete faithful reproduction retained.

Bilde 4

Carl Friedrich Albert Wienke’s 1883 US patent. In the lower drawing, the folding arm rests on the bottle rim while the handle raises the cork.

Surrounding margins cropped from the original patent drawing.

Bilde 1

Samuel Prout’s chalk-manner lithograph, published in Senefelder’s English handbook in 1819.

Plate rendered from original 1819 scan and rotated upright; no image content removed.

Bilde 2

Alois Senefelder, drawn from memory by Franz Xaver Winterhalter.

Full source image scaled for delivery.

Bilde 3

A lever press and its printing frame, illustrated in the 1819 handbook. The paper is held above the stone until pressure brings it down.

Plate rendered from original 1819 scan and rotated upright; no image content removed.

Bilde 4

Prout’s transfer lithograph in the 1819 handbook: a drawing made on paper and transferred to the printing stone.

Plate rendered from original 1819 scan and rotated upright; no image content removed.

Bilde 1

A nineteenth-century zoetrope in Auckland Museum. The narrow slots interrupt the viewer’s sight of the drawings inside.

Background and measurement scale cropped; whole apparatus retained.

Bilde 2

A complete machinery sequence kept with the Auckland zoetrope. Thirteen drawings divide the action into successive positions.

Full original museum photograph retained.

Bilde 3

A closer view of the machinery strip. The changes in the wheel, rods and blades must belong to the same action.

Background trimmed from the original close-up; partial adjacent figure at left retained.

Bilde 4

The barrel sequence from the same collection. The surviving paper includes tears and detached pieces.

Full original museum photograph retained.

Bilde 5

Lincoln’s 1867 patent: the drum, its support, the viewing geometry and successive dancing figures.

Figure area cropped from original patent sheet and rotated for reading; full source PDF retained.

Bilde 6

Inside the Auckland drum, with several strips stored together. A strip used for viewing runs around the lower inner wall.

Full original top-view photograph retained.

Bilde 1

The Silver Swan with its glass stream exposed at The Bowes Museum.

Embedded figure extracted from the openly licensed PDF; no crop, retouching, recolouring or added annotation.

Bilde 2

John Joseph Merlin, painted by Thomas Gainsborough in 1781, holding a set of small scales.

Bilde 3

A miniature cabinet with a watch supplied by James Cox, about 1770.

Bilde 4

The main driving movement: spring barrels, gears and the cam assembly that controls the bird.

Embedded figure extracted from the openly licensed PDF; no crop, retouching, recolouring or added annotation.

Bilde 5

The cam assembly. The shaped brass surfaces determine when the neck, bill and fish move.

Embedded figure extracted from the openly licensed PDF; no crop, retouching, recolouring or added annotation.

Bilde 6

A schematic of the neck mechanism. A pin follows the track around the rotating drum, rocking a toothed sector that turns the neck.

Embedded figure extracted from the openly licensed PDF; no crop, retouching, recolouring or added annotation.

Bilde 7

Mark Twain in 1871, four years after his visit to the Paris exhibition.

Previously cropped portrait as supplied by Wikimedia Commons; no further modification.

Bilde 8

The exhibition palace on the Champ de Mars at the Paris Exposition of 1867.

Bilde 9

John Bowes, painted by Jacques Eugène Feyen.

Bilde 10

Joséphine Bowes, Countess of Montalbo, painted by Antoine Dury.

Bilde 11

The Bowes Museum in Barnard Castle, County Durham, built to house John and Joséphine Bowes’s collection.

Bilde 12

The later cam track pressing against an older iron lever. The arrows identify the contact found during examination.

Embedded figure extracted from the openly licensed PDF; no crop, retouching, recolouring or added annotation.

Bilde 13

The Swanulator, a test rig built in 2009 to investigate changes to the neck movement without experimenting on the historic automaton.

Embedded figure extracted from the openly licensed PDF; no crop, retouching, recolouring or added annotation.

Bilde 1

The pitcher plant later named Nepenthes northiana, painted from specimens brought down to North at Jambusan in 1876.

Bilde 2

North at an easel in Julia Margaret Cameron’s house in Ceylon, now Sri Lanka, in January 1877, after her first visit to Sarawak.

Bilde 3

Margaret Brooke, North’s hostess and friend, in a later portrait made in 1910–12.

Bilde 4

View of the River from the Rajah’s Garden, painted in 1876. The garden gave North both subjects and a working base.

Bilde 5

View of the Matang over the Great Swamp, 1876. North’s Sarawak pictures move between close plant studies and extensive landscapes.

Bilde 6

Road Making in the Tegora Forest, 1876. North’s journeys through this landscape depended on paths, carriers and the mining settlements.

Bilde 7

The gallery North financed at Kew, designed by James Fergusson and opened in 1882.

Bilde 8

The gallery in 2008, before its restoration. Pictures cover the walls above a dado of wood samples.

Bilde 9

Curious Plants from the Forest of Matang, 1876. The blue-fruited plant near the centre was later identified as Chassalia northiana.

Bilde 1

An example of the Franklin type, in the Metropolitan Museum of Art.

Bilde 2

Benjamin Franklin, painted by Joseph-Siffred Duplessis around 1785.

Resized for publication; complete original retained.

Bilde 3

A later illustration of the Franklin type, published in Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians in 1900.

Converted from supplied WebP to JPEG; original preserved.

Bilde 4

The opening of K. 617 in Breitkopf & Härtel's 1883 edition. The armonica part occupies two staves below the other four instruments.

First page rendered from the public-domain PDF; original PDF retained.

Bilde 5

Kirchgässner's announcement for a concert on 23 February 1806.

Bilde 1

The commercial Sholes & Glidden placed its typebars beneath the paper roller. Its flowers and gold decoration arrived after years of experiments with much plainer machines.

Body photograph unchanged; cover cropped. The cropped version is shared under CC BY-SA 4.0.

Bilde 2

Christopher Latham Sholes, printer, editor and inventor.

Bilde 3

Kleinsteuber's machine shop in Milwaukee, where Sholes and his associates developed the writing machine.

Bilde 4

The June 1868 design used a flat paper frame and piano-like keys. The circular mechanism brought separate pieces of type to a common printing point.

Bilde 5

Sholes wrote to “Charlie” Weller in April 1870 with further improvements and an offer of a replacement.

Cropped to the complete letter.

Bilde 6

William K. Jenne worked on manufacturing the writing machine at Remington.

Bilde 7

Lillian Sholes at a machine with its carriage raised. The movement exposed writing otherwise hidden beneath the roller.

Bilde 8

An early keyboard arrangement reproduced in 1923. It already has QWERTY, while other letter positions differ from the modern layout.

Bilde 9

Twain's first attempt, 9 December 1874. He reported that his daughter Susie had struck the keys, too.

Bilde 1

Plate 31 of Kunstformen der Natur. The eleven radiolarian forms are enlarged by different amounts; the one named for Anna Sethe is at the bottom centre.

Commons original retained; its existing trim to the illustrated area is preserved.

Bilde 2

Ernst Haeckel in 1860.

Existing Commons crop and level adjustment preserved; no further alteration.

Bilde 3

Dictyocodon annasethe in Haeckel’s 1887 scientific plate.

Historical figure reproduction retained at original 598×598 pixels; no upscaling or new image content.

Bilde 4

The later version in Kunstformen der Natur, enlarged here from Plate 31.

Detail crop (610,1750)–(1670,3271) from 2309×3271 source; neighbouring rays remain.

Bilde 1

Louis Braille in Henri Thiriat’s posthumous engraving, published in 1887.

Full original engraving retained; scaled for delivery.

Bilde 2

Braille’s writing slate, displayed at the Musée Louis Braille. A movable guide positions the marks on the grooved board.

Display background cropped; complete slate, guide and displayed stylus retained.

Bilde 3

The same three letters on the reading face and the writing side. Filled circles mark the dots or the positions pressed; hollow circles mark unused positions.

New code-native SVG schematic; no historical page or third-party diagram reproduced.

Bilde 4

Lucy Sergent writing in Lejunior, Kentucky, 15 September 1946.

Full original photograph scaled for delivery.

Bilde 1

Daguerre's diorama in the church at Bry-sur-Marne, photographed in 2019 after its restoration. The painted architecture continues beyond the real altar and surrounding decoration.

Bilde 2

Louis Daguerre, about 1844.

Bilde 3

A Diorama share certificate dated 3 August 1822, signed by Daguerre and Bouton. It records a payment of a thousand francs and an entitlement to a share of net profits.

Bilde 4

The London Diorama's ground plan: the round audience room could turn towards either of the two picture chambers.

Cropped historical ground plan at (340,270,1660,1445) from2072x3128 modern reproduction page, excluding modern heading and caption. No retouching.

Bilde 5

A section through the London theatre separates the spectators, on the right, from the painting and the space needed to illuminate it.

Cropped historical cross section at (100,1590,1930,2705) from2072x3128 reproduction page, excluding modern captions. No retouching.

Bilde 6

A later explanation of the diorama's lighting, published in Louis Figuier's Les Merveilles de la science in 1869. The working space extends above and behind the painted surface.

Bilde 1

Modern Conté and Criterium materials. The graphite pencils in the lower rows include several hardness grades; the coloured drawing materials above use other compositions.

Resized; complete photograph and original preserved.

Bilde 2

Nicolas-Jacques Conté, in an engraved portrait by Louis-Pierre Baltard.

Resized; original preserved.

Bilde 3

Cutting and grooving pencil wood, in an illustration published in The Manufacturer and Builder in 1872.

Historical figure cropped from faithful reprint; modern page text and layout excluded. Original preserved.

Bilde 4

Ingres drew Madame Armand Bertin in graphite in 1843. Fine outlines and light hatching give different parts of the portrait their weight.

Resized; complete sheet and original preserved.

Bilde 1

The title page and opening of the General Prologue in the 1896 Kelmscott Chaucer. The picture above the verse was designed by Edward Burne-Jones and cut by W. H. Hooper.

Full source image scaled for delivery; no reconstructed content.

Bilde 2

William Morris at his desk in the library of Kelmscott House, in the 1890s.

Mechanical scan rendered; surrounding blank margin trimmed; facsimile signature retained.

Bilde 3

Troy type above and the smaller Chaucer type below, reproduced in H. Halliday Sparling’s 1924 book.

Full source image scaled for delivery; no reconstructed content.

Bilde 4

The restored Kelmscott/Goudy Albion press at RIT’s Cary Graphic Arts Collection, photographed in 2015.

Full source image scaled for delivery; no reconstructed content.

Bilde 1

James Glaisher and Henry Coxwell with an instrument table in a balloon basket, photographed around 1864, after their celebrated ascent.

Cropped from the album leaf to the photograph; painted border partly retained.

Bilde 2

Glaisher’s instrument arrangement in Travels in the Air, 1871. The bellows below the table drew air through the measuring apparatus; scissors, numbered 24, allowed equipment to be released quickly for landing.

Rendered from original PDF, rotated clockwise and cropped to remove blank margins; full numbered apparatus retained.

Bilde 3

Coxwell at the rigging and Glaisher collapsed in the basket, in a later illustration by Émile Bayard, engraved by Charles Laplante. The picture reconstructs a crisis during which Glaisher could no longer observe.

Original image retained.

Bilde 4

The published profile of the 5 September 1862 ascent. A dashed line carries the curve across its highest section: Glaisher reconstructed that part after observations stopped.

Rendered from original PDF and cropped only at blank outer margins; axes, temperatures and plate caption retained.

Bilde 1

Örnen after the landing on 14 July 1897. Strindberg exposed the film on the ice; Hertzberg developed it in 1930. This paper copy was made in 1931–32.

Bilde 2

Strindberg with a camera at the Danskön base in 1897, before the flight.

Bilde 3

Frænkel, left, Strindberg, centre, and Andrée, right, with the boat and sledge at a pressure ridge. The camera appears to have used an automatic release.

Bilde 4

The forks photographed on 3 August 1897. Andrée's diary records making the right-hand fork for Frænkel.

Bilde 5

Hertzberg's photograph of the recovered apparatus, 1931–32. The separate board on the left carries the paired stereoscopic lenses; the shutter leans against the camera.

Bilde 6

The cassette, spool and film, photographed by Hertzberg in 1931–32.

Bilde 1

Objects from Franklin's expedition acquired from Inuit by John Rae, including silver cutlery and pieces of watches.

Bilde 2

John Rae, in J. Scott's 1858 mezzotint.

Bilde 3

A historical reproduction of the Victory Point record. The May 1847 message occupies the form; the April 1848 addition runs around its margins.

Bilde 4

Taqulittuq, also known as Tookoolito, one of the interpreters who made Hall’s inquiries possible. From a photograph by T. W. Smillie, published in 1879.

Blank printed page margins and signature cropped; complete original preserved.

Bilde 5

Inukpujijuk's 1869 sketch, reproduced in the 1879 narrative edited from Hall's records. Its numbered places were accompanied by names and explanations, including a wreck location.

Rotated 90 degrees counterclockwise for reading; outer blank margins cropped.

Bilde 6

The lower half of the writing desk collected by Hall. His account describes the added bottom board and its use as a blubber tray.

Individual upper illustration/caption cropped from full page.

Bilde 1

Frank Eugene at a table, in an Autochrome attributed to Alfred Stieglitz, about 1907. The red cloth and flowers were recorded through the plate's microscopic colour screen.

Bilde 2

An Autochrome rolling machine at the Institut Lumière in Lyon, photographed in 2023. Rolling helped flatten the coloured starch screen.

Bilde 3

The coloured screen of an Autochrome under magnification. The irregular grains act as tiny filters; the dark material between them blocks unwanted light.

Bilde 4

Frank Eugene, Alfred Stieglitz, Heinrich Kühn and Edward Steichen examining Eugene's work in 1907. This is a platinum print, made in a different process from their colour experiments.

Bilde 5

Frank Eugene's Stieglitz and Emmy, 1907. The Autochrome measures about 13 × 18 cm.

Bilde 6

A box of four Lumière Autochrome plates. The label warns against heat and humidity and tells the buyer to read the instructions before opening it.

Bilde 7

The American Lumière company's advertisement in Camera Work, October 1907, promised a first shipment within fifteen days and urged advance orders.

Rendered PDF page 72 at 2x; crop (222,128,1034,1405) from 1112x1597 whole page, removing outer blank margins and keeping complete advertisement border. JPEG quality96; no retouching.

Bilde 8

Arnold Genthe's 1913 Autochrome portrait of Percy MacKaye as Alwyn, seen in a folding diascope. The viewer uses a mirror to present the illuminated image.

Bilde 1

An E-flat alto saxophone made by Adolphe Sax around 1855.

Resized for publication; original preserved.

Bilde 2

Adolphe Sax, photographed by Charles Clarkington.

Resized for publication; original preserved.

Bilde 3

Kastner’s fingering table links notes to the numbered keys of his illustrated saxophone.

Resized from complete digitised foldout; original preserved.

Bilde 4

Sax’s instrument-making premises on the rue Saint-Georges in Paris.

Converted PNG to JPEG; original preserved.

Bilde 5

The alto’s bell names Adolphe Sax in Paris and his appointment to the Emperor’s military establishment.

Resized for publication; original preserved.

Bilde 1

An octant signed George Adams, London, in Coimbra’s science museum. The index arm pivots at the top of the frame and moves along the lower arc.

Background margins trimmed.

Bilde 2

Nevil Maskelyne in 1785, painted by Gerard van der Puyl. The portrait dates from his later career as Astronomer Royal.

Faithful painting reproduction retained.

Bilde 3

A Ramsden sextant from 1775–1800, at the Musée des Arts et Métiers in Paris. Its wider arc belongs to the later instrument family; it is not the quadrant used on Maskelyne’s voyage.

Complete original photograph retained.

Bilde 4

The worked result in Maskelyne’s 1763 guide: fourteen minutes added to the ship’s reckoning at the time of the observation.

Blank scan margins trimmed from printed page 50; text unchanged.

Bilde 1

A glass jellyfish, catalogued as Polyclonia frondosa, from the Blaschka collection in Berlin.

Resized by Wikimedia thumbnail service; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 2

A jellyfish preserved in a glass jar at Berlin’s Museum für Naturkunde, photographed in 2012.

Resized by Wikimedia thumbnail service; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 3

Squid specialist Clyde Roper among jars of preserved specimens in the Smithsonian’s wet collection.

Bilde 4

Leopold Blaschka, whose work in jewellery, glass eyes and naturalistic models developed into a specialist scientific business.

Resized by Wikimedia thumbnail service; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 5

Rudolf Blaschka joined his father’s workshop as a young man and became his collaborator in glass and natural history.

Resized by Wikimedia thumbnail service; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 6

The Blaschkas’ house at Hosterwitz, near Dresden, photographed in 2008.

Resized by Wikimedia thumbnail service; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 7

Sea anemones in Philip Henry Gosse’s Actinologia Britannica, 1860. The large pale animal is the plumose anemone, shown with its tentacles expanded.

Resized by Wikimedia thumbnail service; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 8

A living plumose anemone with its feeding crown expanded. This is a modern aquarium view of the posture a preserved specimen can lose.

Resized by Wikimedia thumbnail service; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 9

A Blaschka model of an anemone encounter: Sagartia troglodytes directs stinging threads towards a neighbouring Actinia.

Resized by Wikimedia thumbnail service; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 10

A reconstruction of the Blaschka workshop in Geneva, with a replica bench and a figure representing Leopold. The bellows supplied air to the working flame.

Resized by Wikimedia thumbnail service; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 11

A glass medusa catalogued as Geryonia proboscidalis. Separate fine tentacles hang below the transparent bell.

Resized by Wikimedia thumbnail service; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 12

Stalked jellyfish, catalogued as Lucernaria auricula, modelled with their branching, tentacled arms.

Resized by Wikimedia thumbnail service; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 13

Aulosphaera elegantissima, made around 1885 and enlarged about a hundred times, in the University of Tübingen’s zoological collection.

Resized by Wikimedia thumbnail service; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 14

A preserved squid in a tall specimen jar at Slottsfjellsmuseet, photographed in 2020.

Resized by Wikimedia thumbnail service; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 15

A Blaschka squid in the Welsh collection. Models like this had to reach their customers with the fine arms intact.

Resized by Wikimedia thumbnail service; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 16

Canada wild ginger in Harvard’s Glass Flowers collection, with enlarged details beside the plant.

Resized by Wikimedia thumbnail service; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 17

The Glass Flowers gallery at Harvard: the botanical commission eventually occupied the workshop for the rest of both men’s careers.

Resized by Wikimedia thumbnail service; no crop, filter or overlay.

Bilde 18

A female paper nautilus, Argonauta argo, after conservation at Museum Wales.

Resized by Wikimedia thumbnail service; no crop, filter or overlay.